Baybars took power in Egypt

Baybars took power in Egypt

Whole princes on his Baybars, the owner of the famous Ali Alantsart Mongols, ruled Egypt. Vetola power in 1260 AD / 658 approaches. And proved its wars, and that the real founder of the Mamluk state in Egypt and the Levant, where he remained in power for 17 years.

Wanted Baybars that derives its mandate to Egypt legitimacy of the Abbasid Caliphate, like all previous mandates Ayyubid, have resorted to the revival of the Abbasid Caliphate, which had fallen into the Mongols Baghdad and the killing of the Abbasid Caliph and every member of the dynasty Abbasid only the Prince of one survivor of the massacre of the Abbasids in Baghdad and is son of Imam Ahmad Zahir.

Fastkdmh Baybars in 1261 m and a Baybars a council of scientists and judges and princes, and acknowledged the validity of ratios Prince to the House, the Abbasid and to label him a Caliph Mustansir, then pledge allegiance Baybars and the rest of the men of the State, and after that, the Caliph to grant Baybars mandate to rule Egypt and the Levant and the Euphrates .

But the new Abbasid Caliph on his way to Baghdad to take up the succession took place in the hands of Mughal patrol on the road, killing him and cut to pieces.

Baybars wars against the Mongols and the Crusaders

Mongol Hulagu died, leaving the more vulnerable their grip on Iraq. And the Mongols tried to avenge their defeat of Goliath in the eye of the beer Vogarwa on the Euphrates River, but the armies of Baybars in 1265 AD forced them to withdraw, and the Mamluk army was able to clear the Euphrates of the garrison but the Mongol Baghdad remained in their grip.

The Crusaders They still occupy the emirates in the Levant, Baybars He sets the expulsion from the Levant and was in 1265 AD is the beginning of his wars against the Crusaders came out to where a huge army seized by the Caesarea and Arsuf also seized Safed in 1266 AD.

Swept Baybars Galilee region of Palestine to the coast, and was not gentle, such as Saladin, who was leaning to the truce and issue an amnesty for the family, but he was Battasa not take him out of mercy for those who fall in the hands of the Crusaders and the Mongols, was killed soldiers and garrisons and sells women and children as slaves in the markets.

And in 1268 AD seized Antioch, Crusader Principality to come. And burned the city and other land and kill all the Crusader garrison and sold the women and children the Crusaders in the slave market.

Also sent a naval campaign against Cyprus to discipline its king, who has been to compile against the Crusaders, but the campaign failed. And invaded the Kingdom of Armenia, 1275 m, and attacked the Seljuks, who were Roman Ieonon Mongols against him and inflicted a humiliating defeat of their year 1277 AD.



Work in Egypt, Baybars

Attributed to him in the Cairo neighborhood of the apparent relative to the mosque built by the apparent and is located in the field is apparent. And this mosque built by one of the greatest tip of the mosques in Egypt. And has begun work in the construction year 1266 AD / 665 approaches and was built 1269 years AD. But the French during the French had demolished lighthouse door above the sea, and inhabited by some of their soldiers, Vtakrb many of its parts. Around him and Muhammad Ali to the soap factory. Bmzbh then exploited by the British in World War I, and then restore the Arab Commission for historical preservation in 1918 and rebuilt some of its parts.

Baybars also built arch of wild animals on the Gulf, Egypt and set them Sbaa of stones because the logo was in the form of seven, and was known Bakntrh Ms. Zainab.

Also built many buildings, including a school established by the year AD 1261 the soil next to the master, Najm al-Din Saleh Ayoub Street, between the two palaces, and destroyed, but now because of the open house street judge.

Baybars died in July 1277 AD 675 approaches a fever during his campaign in the Levant and was in the sixty years of age and was buried in Damascus.

The rule of Egypt, Baybars 18 years old, and had a great conquests of the Mongols and the Crusaders, even the title of father of conquests.

And also that Saladin break the Crusaders at the height of their power, break the spine of the Mongols and Baybars halted their advance and protected Egypt from the devastation of the country was subjected to the Euphrates and the Levant, and thus the security of Egypt's cultural and political prestige in the Arab world.

aeen galoot Goliath

Qtz united ranks of the Mamluks under his command and went out to fight the army of the Mamluks and the Mongol army of the Crown-owned Introduction Baybars al-Bunduqdari, and continued its march to the Levant in July 1260

 Qtz showed foresight when Hadden Crusaders in Acre and asked them to sit on the sidelines, then head east across the Galilee to the Jordan and resorted to the trick most of the strange Vokhva his army between the trees and bushes at the village of Ein Beit She'an and Goliath between Nablus and left the army under his leadership following the introduction to walking towards the Mongol army.

 Qtz meet Army and led the Mongol army at the village of Ein Katbugha Goliath in September 1260 / 658 approaches and defeated the army of the Mongols Qtz routed and killed their leader Katbugha. Qtz and continued to offer and the expulsion of the Mongols from the Sham and the annexation of his power.

And thus the risk of Egypt secured the Mongols who, if they entered the ruins and turned it into a spent all traces of Cairo.



Killed Saifuddin Qtz

Baybars became a folk hero for his role in the defeat of the great Mughal army, which could not be stopped by any army, and the student is rewarded Bibirs Emirate of Aleppo in Qtz not promise, and became fearful of Baybars Qtz deceive him, he decided to get rid of it.

 In one exploratory fishing trips on the way to Egypt, Baybars pounced on the Qtz and kill him and that was in late in 1260. Baybars was aware that his popularity among the people will dominate for his crime and his role in the defeat of the Mongols will confirm pardon him, and rightfully so.

The fall of the Abbasid Caliphate by the Mongols

The fall of the Abbasid Caliphate by the Mongols

Was the beginning of the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate at the hands Junkies Khan who attacked the Muslim regions in the country and the algorithm was able in 1219 m the occupation of Samarkand and Bukhara, Balkah and turned it into ruins.

But the death of Khan Junkies in 1241 given to the Abbasid caliphate opportunity to prepare, an opportunity not exploited by the Abbasid Caliph.

Junkies and grandson became the first leader Hulagu Khan, Mongol gets the title of Khan and declared himself independent of the Alkhacan most of the East.

And In 1256 Hulagu sent to the Abbasid Caliph al-Mustasim warning asking for delivery of Baghdad, and destroyed all its defenses price for his life.

The taxes imposed by the Mongols Abbasid Caliph Ali too expensive, prompting the Caliph to be missing from the Baghdad garrison hundred thousand to twenty thousand, and try to dodge the answer to Hulagu warning. Hulagu, but proved to him that he did not choose for the appropriate personal with such a dodgy, so the siege of Baghdad in January 1258 and towards the defender of the city wall. Check that the caliph caliphate going inevitably he sent his minister to negotiate with Hulagu to the delivery terms of the city. But his minister was a malcontent Alawite Ali Abbasi Caliph, reversing a traitor to his master and helped the Mongols to enter Alkark neighborhood in Baghdad.

Mustasim tried to intimidate Hulagu that God would punish the world if the Caliph was killed and that the sun would stop sending light and rain will not fall and will stop in life. Hulagu, but this talk did not pay attention and took advantage of betrayal and Minister of the Abbasid Caliph and his successor sent a letter to the vows that if the Caliph came with his entourage and peace itself will forgive him Hulagu.

Signed the Abbasid Caliph Paranoid Musta'sim in this trick and came with all his family and his entourage to the tent of Hulagu, and when they had gathered the Mongols attacked and beheaded them all and killed all of the Abbasids was alive so that you do a list of the succession beyond.

For the first time since the death of the Prophet peace be upon him interrupted the Islamic caliphate and become a Muslim nation with no successor.

Mongols stormed Baghdad in February 1258 and came to the country's sugar and orgy of looting and the pogroms and the destruction of more than it was subjected to steam. Slaughter of the Mongols and the mob more than a million people, including women and children in the massacres lasted 40 days and the stench of decaying corpses so unbearable that Hulagu was forced to withdraw his army outside the city temporarily.

Mongols and sparked fires in libraries, schools and books thrown in the river until it built a bridge across the Mongols Boukjulhm disappeared and a large part of the heritage of Islamic civilization in the Arts and Arts and Sciences.

And decided to eyewitnesses, the soldiers, the Mongols became afterwards one of the richest rich until they filled the saddles, their horses and mules precious stones and carried them outside the city and burned only the tombs of the caliphs and the Caliph's palace Mustasim land and also became the main mosque and the ruins.

In 1259 the Mongols swept the Sham and the Hulagu captured Nisibis and Edessa and Harran, and then turned their forces and to Aleppo fell in January 1260 and killed fifty thousand of the captured and keep it.

News massacres and drove the Mongols in the Levant, which was called the Ayyubid ruler of Damascus, Joseph Weaver, and leaves the fate of Damascus and receive fall into the hands of the Mongols butchers.

Sayf al-Din took Qtz ruled Egypt

Was owned Qtz algorithm out of the military commander in the era of Azzedine APIC. And the conspiracy of the APIC killed his wife was appointed senior princes small APIC Izz al-Din Ibn Sultan of Egypt and leader of the Lashkar-e-Qtz.

Qtz, but who saw the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad by the Mongols in February 1258, he realized he must be ready to take over for the next Mlaqh Mongol hordes. So he dismissed the little boy Ali Ezzeddine APIC and sat on the throne of the Sultanate year 1259.

Qtz took power in a difficult period where he was repulsed by the great danger threatens not only the Islamic nation but the entire human civilization.

Not affected by nerves Qtz war waged by the Mongols Bfezaúahm committed by them in every city, enter it, and the manifestation of the apostles came to him when Hulagu ask him to surrender and hand over to Egypt, what was it only that the order to strike the heads of the Mongols and Russell commented on the door of their heads Zewailah

Najm al-Din Ayyub al-Durr, and trees and the Seventh Crusade against Egypt Take-Salih Najm al-Din ruled Egypt

Najm al-Din Ayyub al-Durr, and trees and the Seventh Crusade against Egypt
Take-Salih Najm al-Din ruled Egypt

Take just the second Sayf al-Din Abu Bakr ruled Egypt after the death of his father Sultan full year 1239 AD / 635 approaches which led to that is on his brother, older-Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub to restore his right to take over the Sultanate, and Oataath opportunity as a result of the policy of his brother, which aroused feelings of princes it Vqdoa it and they called Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub, who became Sultan of Egypt in 637 approaches / 1240 AD.

Sultan Saleh faced revolts some communities the soldiers began to form a new army finds him and obey him So he bought thousands of the Mamelukes and the Turks, who fled their homelands in Asia Minor because of the Mongol raids and took a good Job of them organized army. It is clear from this that the Sultan did not learn good from the Abbasids, who did the same thing and took the armies of slaves and pimps, and ended up becoming the Abbasid caliphs at the mercy of their pimp and became merely a front for the succession without real power.

 Of the most prominent effects of good king in Egypt, Castle kindergarten that he stayed and married with Mmaen of Armenians under way is the tree-Durr was the Abbasid Caliph had given to him and bore him a son of Hebron.



 Restoration of Jerusalem for the second time of the Crusaders

Sultan Saleh Ayoub found himself threatened with swear crusader princes of Damascus, Saleh Ismail, and the Kerak Nasser David, and Ibrahim al-Mansur of Homs. He decided to break this alliance before attacking He ran with his army and captured Damascus, and marched to Jerusalem from the Crusaders and restored years 1244 / 640 approaches.

 

The defeat of the Seventh Crusade, led by Louis IX

Has a new crusade aimed at Egypt, and was the fiercest and bloodiest of the campaign on the initial Damietta, and was led by French King Louis IX, who was known Ptdenh and bigotry. And I vow to Louis himself to die for his religion.

And informed the Sultan Saleh Ayoub that the Crusaders gathered in Cyprus, and they would come down as much as Damietta, as did their predecessors, Vhacd his army toward the city and decided to fight a war to which Ahoadh.

Ayoub was a good contrast to his father the king full, it was a brave bold, and was firm to the degree of cruelty.

 Asalbiyon entered the city of Damietta in June 6, 1249 without a fight and turned the mosque into a church and set up a French patriarch of the city.

And it was the month of June is the month of flooding of the Nile The impact of King Louis to wait until it is located so as not to flood in and signed the fifth campaign.

 When he finished the flood season began Lewis stayed on to Cairo, and in the meantime died, Sultan Saleh, Vakhvt his wife Shajar Al-Durr news of his death so as not to weaken the soldiers, warriors, and sent in a call to her stepson Turan Shah of Fort Kiva (Levant) and in the meantime take Baybars the leadership of the army.

Crusaders entered the vessels on the Nile and Egyptian ships, acting, and the Crusaders lost 80 ships. And cohesion of the fighting armies and reached its peak when, where dissolved Faraskour defeat the Crusaders and captured their king Louis IX approaches 648 years / 1250, and took him to Dar es Sheikh Fakhruddin bin Luqman in Mansoura.

 And negotiate the victor and the defeated, and the imposition of Muslims and their terms are for the evacuation of Damietta, the Crusaders and their exodus from Egypt and the payment of blood money from the expensive gold exchange for the release of Lewis and of his family.

And approved by Louis IX on the terms of delivery and the Crusaders came out first from Damietta, and later launched the release of King Zahir Baybars captured, He got a ship headed for him to Acre, which was with the Crusaders.

  

Turan Shah Durr and trees and the end of the Ayyubid

Turan Shah took power in late 1250, succeeding his father to help his father, a man Durr trees, but his reign did not last more than two months for the persecution of the Mamluk princes and all the trees they reasoned Durr against him and killed him.

 Club senior statesmen trees Durr Queen of Egypt in 1250, to be owned by Azzedine APIC in advance of the military and the splendor of religion and its ministers. This was the first time that a woman holds the power in Egypt since the days of the Pharaohs.

Amounted to a ruling 80 days showed the reliability and efficiency and good management. However, the Abbasid caliph did not accept that holds the rule of Egypt and a woman, especially as they have under way the Abbasid Caliph himself, he sent to leaders of the Mamluks say to them: "If men had Admt Vaalmona you have going for you man." Durr trees forced to cede power outburst APIC Mamluk and married him.

 Thus ended the Ayyubid state in Egypt, which lasted about seventy years from 1171 to 1250 m

 And one of the greatest achievements of this state campaigns they responded to the East and the Crusaders broke the thorn and evacuated many of the Muslim regions.

Contemporary British historian Sir Steven Ronisman for the Crusades launched by Europe to the Islamic East, "the Crusades were a tragic cycle of destructive (in the chain reaction the relationship between East and West), it was where many of the courage and honor few, many of piety, and few of understanding, Vltcht ideals of cruelty and greed, and devotion to the skin and Uthhma blind sense of self, and interspersed with moral distress Highness the horizon "

 State came to shake off the Ayyubid Egypt and relaxed slouch of the Fatimid caliphate, which would not have been able to repel the Crusades. And has taken out of this State is an outstanding leader Saladin, who under the proverbial all subsequent generations of the courageous leader of a Muslim in a dream and in the wisdom and daring, who fought throughout his life to liberate the land of Muslim and Muslim individual from the tyranny of occupation.

Saladin was a revolution of his time, which is filled with rulers and successors are selling everything in order to keep Bsultanam and ally themselves with the enemies of the Islamic nation against each other.

 And of the most prominent features of this state that the center of the Islamic caliphate and moved to Cairo, Egypt became the state's ruling to the rest of the mandates of the Abbasid caliphate in the Levant, Iraq, Hijaz and Yemen

Ali Mustafa mosharafa

Ali Mustafa Location Pasha (11 July 1898-15 January 1950) was a mathematician of Egypt, was born in Damietta in the neighborhood of the oppressed, and was the eldest son of Mustafa Location One of the elders of that city and wealthy locals, has spent a Location the first years of his childhood in the life of luxury and bliss of mind, to be influenced by his father in 1907, the famous cotton crisis that rocked the Egyptian economy She fell to the bottom of the rich, poverty was a result of the crisis, it claimed two hundred acres owned by the parent.

Received (on) the first lessons by his father and then in school, "Ahmed Ketbi," and was always one of the first in the study, but his childhood free of all Mbahjha where he says about it:

(I Avni and I am a child to be in the foreground, Fajlt my childhood all joyful, and I learned at that age that play is a waste of time, and she said his mother, I learned the dignity and sleep at the age of entertainment and fun, even running, I consider it a departure from the grouper).

Was Dr. / Supervisor sister followed in which Ms. Age / Nafisa Mohammed married your soldier

And he has three brothers, the men were:

Dr / Mostafa was a professor of English Literature, Cairo.

Dr. / gift was director of the University Library, Cairo.

Major General / good honorable and was director of the passage of

 Study:

Was eleven years old when he lost his father in 1909, after he lost his fortune in speculation cotton in 1907 and lost his land and wealth and even his home, and found the same family man destitute composed of the mother and sister and three brothers, Vojbarham this situation to move to Cairo and accommodation in an apartment modest in the neighborhood of Abdeen, while he joined the School of Abbasid Iianuehbalaxanderah where he spent years in the department of internal free then moved to the school Saidia in Cairo, free of charge also for the superiority of school, got them on the first section of the secondary school certificate (efficiency) in 1912, and the second section (baccalaureate ) in 1914, and ranked second on the whole country with the age of sixteen years, an event unique in the world of education and education in Egypt at that time. And its people, this superiority - especially in science - to attend any high school of his choice such as medicine or engineering, but preferred to belong to the Teachers High, where he graduated three years after the first prize, Fajtarth the Ministry of Education of public to the scientific expedition to Britain at their own expense.

In 1920 he joined the Royal College (kings college), and in 1923 he earned a doctorate in the philosophy of science under the supervision of the physical world famous Charles Thomas Wilson, Charles T. Wilson - Nobel Prize for Physics in 1927 - and then in 1924 received a Ph.D. from the University of London, which was the highest degree.

Scientific achievements:

The d / Supervisor of touch every day its research scientific succeeded where to continue what he began the serious research results appeared in research published in international journals in 1929 m from the movement of electron phenomenon is positive and mechanical waves and the concept of dual material and radiation This was not only a prelude to look brilliant Location publication year 1932, has spread his reputation in all circles and became mentioned with every tongue, and this research entitled: Is the radiation and Article two of the state of a global one?

Has proved d / Supervisor in the two images being examined Xi and one that became the scientific base, which says that matter and energy and radiation is only one thing.

And in 1934, provides research last that by some of the relations between matter and radiation in the light of the new concept, which in addition to science, and in science in 1937 had a d / Supervisor discussed the famous peace music of Egypt and published in the journal Nature and the Journal of the Egyptian Society of Sciences and published research Maxwell equation for the variable speed of light, in 1942, took the research d / Supervisor in another direction towards the principles of infinity and the latitude and longitude, and surface waves related to them.

In 1944, remittances made conical search.

In 1945, made search for the equation of the movement of partial animation.

In 1948, made search for the decrease in mass of the nucleus of the atom.

Dr. "Ali" one of the few who knew the secret of the atom and a fragmentation of the scientists who fought against the use in war .. But he was the first of a new idea is that hydrogen can be made from such a bomb .. However, he did not wish to make the hydrogen bomb, which is what happened after his death several years in the United States and Russia ..

Which I think he knew who labored for its implementation and its application would have been a difference in Egypt's future and the future of his children and many in the field of nuclear energy

At the university level:

Enjoyed the Faculty of Sciences of the time an international reputation and wide, with my full attention to scientific research and its potential, Fovr all the opportunities available for young researchers to complete their research, and reached its attention to the correspondent members of foreign missions, also allowed for the first time to enter the Arab students the college, where he saw that the restrictions national citizenship and the separators are only ropes the devil is broadcast by the enmity and hatred between the harmonious hearts.

Defended the right of Samira Moussa appointment as the first woman lecturer in the Faculty of Science and threatened to resign if the appointment is not. Vtm appointment and become Samira Moussa then atom scientist did not give birth to Egypt and it was like waiting for a bright future, not for the mysterious accident was killed in America in 1952.

Historians say "The rules laid down by Dr. Location prestigious university, which maintained its independence and gave the lesson and abolished the immunity exceptions in all its forms, and he used to say:" The principle of equality of opportunity is the exact measure that He likes my conscience. "

About studying in the sport Seatah in Arabic, the class dictionary of scientific vocabulary words from English into Arabic.

Tended to translate the scientific literature into Arabic after they study English, he established a section for translation at the College, encouraged the scientific research and the establishment of scientific societies, and founded the Egyptian Society for Mathematical Sciences, natural and complex Egyptian scientific culture, and care is also heritage of Arab Scientific stood with his student Mohammed Morsi Ahmed investigation and publishing a book of algebra and the corresponding algorithm.

On the literary level:

Location was maintained for poetry, familiar with the rules of the Arabic language, a member of the complex of the Egyptian culture of science in Arabic, translated many Investigation into Arabic.

Was also keen to attend the discussions, conferences and debates, and has a famous debate with Dr. / Taha Hussein on (whichever is more beneficial to the society of Arts or Science?).

Location of the publication of Dr. about thirty articles, including:

Tourism in the space of worlds - science and mysticism - the Arabic language as a scientific tool - a collision of two civilizations - in place of the human universe.

At the social level:

Dr. Ali participated in several projects to encourage the Egyptian national industries, also participated in the establishment of a group of displaced children, as was the first to transfer around him lessons in ethics and modern management sessions.

On the musical level:

Dr Location musicians proficient on the violin and the piano music of Gilbert and fond Silvn, and the fact that the Egyptian Society for music lovers in 1945, and the purposes of work to overcome the difficulties that prevent the use of tones in the composition of modern Arabic.

The fact that the Committee for the translation (Alawbertat foreign) to the Arabic language, and wrote a book on Egyptian music to reach all the other tones in the musical scale is CICA and Iraq can be eliminated or dispensed with.

 One of his statements:

(I have seen human origins many civilizations and prosperity on the surface of the earth, but few of those civilizations that lasted and stayed, and then we must ask ourselves why, I thought about it a lot and found that the genius of a large group of citizens of a community sponsor the establishment of civilization with the presence of other factors to help the civilization, but its interest in building a generation completes after the march sponsor continuing culture of those peoples, but is not interested in this group to build a new generation will end that civilization, and will die out and disappear over the days, I think I now answer the question: going on in the mind of many, which is why the Egyptian civilization remained proud until now? and disappeared from other civilizations?).

And of his words is also amazing prediction in the thirties of the last century that the existing energy sources will run out and have to be to go to alternative energy sources such as solar energy.

And was he also believes it has to be Egypt's atomic bomb because this would be an effective tool to deter the other forces that possess nuclear weapons.

The most important books:

    Scientific and theoretical mechanics 1937
    Descriptive Engineering 1937
    Readings slang 1943
    Engineering planar and spatial 1944
    1944 Plane Trigonometry
    Atom and atomic bombs 1945
    Science and life 1946
    Geometry, trigonometry 1947
    We and science 1945
    Special theory of relativity 1943

 His death:

Died on January 15, 1950 m, following a heart attack, and rumors that he was poisoned and died and was told that one of the representatives of King Farouk was behind his death because of what is known from other Farouk him so that he isolated from the post of President of Cairo University on behalf and for the post of agent to spite it.
It was also stated that the Mossad may have been involved in his death and because of the insistence of Dr.. Location aware applications on the introduction of corn to Egypt.

It is reported that Albert Einstein - who has been following his research - have described him when he died, saying: (I can not believe that the Location had died, he was still alive through his research).
It was his disciples Fahmy Ibrahim Mikhail, Mohamed Morsi Ahmed Attia Ashour, Afaf Sabry and Samira Moussa and Mahmoud El-Sherbini.

Administrative regulations Bonaparte in Egypt

Were not the French campaign on Egypt just a campaign of conventional military invasion and occupation, and it is obvious this group of scientists who had accompanied the campaign, and on this the work of Bonaparte to regulate matters of management and governance in Egypt on the pattern of what happened in France after the revolution in terms of the transfer of power to the middle class and they are objects in Egypt.

Napoleon creates Doaoyen the capital and regions, and General Board made up of elders and dignitaries, and the conditions of trading activities in the country. And alerted the idea Aldoaoyen Egyptians to the idea of ​​participation in governance a substitute for the idea of ​​rule of absolute tyranny.

In the field of agriculture, scientists studying the campaign the River Nile and check the channels and bridges, and planted new varieties of plants brought in from France, such as peaches and apricots and pears and apples, as the campaign focused on cultivation of rice, wheat and corn yields, and other traditional already in place.

In the field of justice, Napoleon conducted a change in the legal justice system, where the making of Egyptian scientists Atolonh by universal suffrage among themselves rather than judges senders Turks from Istanbul.

In the scientific field, Napoleon established the Egyptian Academy. And took to its membership campaign summary of scientists in different disciplines and that the style of the French Academy in Paris. And the purpose of the compound as determined by the Nablon is to provide knowledge and science in Egypt and study issues of natural, industrial, historical and scientific opinion of the government in matters being consulted them.

And the compound was able in a short period to evaluate the Arab press and other French and French women, creates two newspapers one political and other scientific economic.
Rosetta Stone is now in the British Museum in London

There are three important works by scholars of the campaign are:

    Attempt canal linking the Mediterranean and the Red Bahrain. But the project stopped due to an error in the calculations of the level of Bahrain.
    Huge collection of information about Egypt in various domains, and their publication in book Description of Egypt which is the first encyclopedia of Egypt at that time.
    Found on the Rosetta Stone, which later enabled Champollion deciphered the hieroglyphs and the consequent opening for studying the history of ancient Egypt.

1919 revolution

1919 revolution
When World War I ended the victory of the Allies, and echoed the world the principles of Wilson's four years on the grounds that they bring justice to oppressed peoples based on the principle of self-determination, he went the leaders of Egypt led by Saad Zaghloul to the British High Commissioner and survived for obtaining approval to travel to Paris to present the case of the independence of Egypt to the peace conference there.

Was expected to support the peace conference in Paris, the British Protectorate imposed on Egypt, but Egypt had wanted to know their rights to Britain as they were aware of their rights of succession to the Ottoman Empire.

She survived, but he refused, and claimed that Saad Zaghloul and Abdel Aziz Fahmy Ali Shaarawi and do not represent the people.

And must mention the historical fact emerged after the publication of correspondence between the survivor and the British government, and is that the survivor was agreed to Egypt's offer to its demands in the peace conference he says in his correspondence of the British government, "If not addressed this issue burning now, it's likely that we will face great difficulties in the future, and I think it's fair to know the Sultan, minister and all the Egyptians stand. "

But the response and the British Foreign Office, which was headed Balfour was as follows "the time when it becomes possible to give Egypt autonomy has not yet come"

And even be a recipe for Saad Zaghloul Agency for people to claim their rights, began a campaign of signatures on petitions hired Saad and his companions. And ignited the movement of the signing agencies and national feelings, the people in the face of the occupation authorities, which has been active in suppressing the movement of the signing agencies.

And increased turbulence after accepting the resignation of the Ministry of Hussein Rushdi, who resigned in protest against not allowing the delegation to travel to the peace conference in Paris, not to allow also for Hussein Rushdi and Minister of Education Adly not go to London to discuss the hopes of Egypt's independence with the British government.

And the acceptance of the resignation of the Ministry of Hussein Rushdi national Sultan Fuad ears Balkotaiah between the Sultan Fuad and the delegation led by Saad Zaghloul, has sent a delegation letter hard to Sultan Fuad where many of the reprimand to accept the resignation of Hussein Rushdi and was the first Sultan Fouad to stand next to the ministry committed to the right of Egypt in the presentation of its case and hopes of independence.

This speech was painful is a divorce between the Sultan Fuad and delegation, the IPC of the British the opportunity and did in March 8, 1919 arrest of Saad Zaghloul and Mohamed Mahmoud, Hamad brave and Ismail Sidky and Saguethm to the barracks, Qasr al-Nil and then to Port Said and then exiled to the island of Malta.

As soon as the news of the arrest and exile Saad applies between the people, even the flames of the revolution broke out on March 9 in Cairo and major cities and villages, and there is no longer the only place abuzz with the national revolution.

And came out all sections of the people in this revolution, it was the right of popular revolution, in which workers, students and peasants. Until the women went out in demonstrations Vhzat Bgerotha community and patriotism. And abolish the peasants on the railroads and telegraph Vqtauha.

Foreign Ministry summoned the British and Nget Wingate, and was replaced by Lord Allenby, who used the British teams to control the revolution, and clashes occurred between the rebels and the English forces, and killed quite a few Egyptians in these clashes.

Revolution of 1919.

And in the end fell of England and the release of Saad Zaghloul and his companions, and declared it was ready to negotiate on the Independence of Egypt, and allowed the delegation of Saad Zaghloul travel to Orr, Ba, but they found Alabub closed in front of them, the States approved the Great British protectorate in Egypt , and Egypt was not allowed to present its case.

The fact that the most important in the 1919 revolution in terms of the independence of Egypt, is that they represented the worst ever in all probability developed by the British occupation in dealing with the independence of Egypt, and has been the revolution that represents the Scarecrow is afraid of them British and fear recurrence, making them are prepared to make more concessions on the issue of independence.

The demands of Saad Zaghloul in the independence they represent the highest degree of independence, and offset at the same time offer Britain, which was a lower degree of independence, which Britain wants to give it to Egypt, came the 1919 revolution and solidarity of all classes of people with the demands of Saad and the spread of the national spirit and unite behind one leader, it all came to give more weight to the degree of independence adopted by Saad, and forced Britain to uphold concessions from the roof to reach the meeting point with the Egyptian government to accept any negotiation with them.

And this is what we will see the abolition of the British protectorate of Egypt in 1922.

Three elections and fair elections in Egypt

Three elections and fair elections in Egypt
Egypt witnessed three elections just saw all the historians of full fairness, two of them before the revolution of 1952 and one after the revolution. Like any fair elections under the government of the autocracy, all came by a majority of the House of Representatives opposed to the government. And are followed by a setback for the integrity of the fund the government's resort to fraud to the exclusion of opposition voices that attracted the support of the people.

The first election in 1924

Fair elections first took place in an atmosphere of historical after the revolution of 1919, where Britain issued a statement February 28, which gives the relative independence of Egypt, and also passed the Constitution of 1923, the first constitution is activated in the history of modern Egypt, and provides for the establishment of parliamentary life in Egypt in which people rule the country through parliament people choose its members, and the party that enjoys the majority of the members to form a government.

And the fact that this constitution was a good step for the task of democratic life, but he has not been without criticism, such as aspects that give the king the right to dissolve parliament and dismiss the ministry, enable the king and is the owner of the executive power of control in the legislature and the Parliament.

On July 23, 1923 martial law was abolished, and fought a delegation led by Saad Zaghloul elections in January 1924, and the result was that the delegation won a landslide victory and won the most seats in parliament. While a few of the successful Liberal Constitutionalist Party, headed by Abd al-Khaliq Tharwat.

And the form of Saad Zaghloul and the Ministry under his leadership was the first Egyptian rural origin who shall take office and called his ministry and the Ministry of the people.

Saad Pasha Zaghloul

View Saad Pasha and his ministry program and was intended to get rid of the four reservations in a statement February 28 that were impeding the full independence of Egypt, putting forward Saad Zaghloul and national demands are:

    Full independence clearly English troops from the country
    Egypt's Bmsalyatea in the protection of the Suez Canal
    Freedom of the Egyptian government in the development of its foreign policy
    The Egyptian Government, which holds the minority and foreign affairs

But the British government rejected these demands and swore Ministry Saad hostility.

And when the opportunity came but one out of patriotism and the assassination of Egyptian Sardar Egyptian army in Sudan Searle Sirlee Stack and Stack is in Cairo, turning the British government and the face of this incident, Lord Allenby ultimatum to the Ministry of Saad Zaghloul calling for:

    The Egyptian government to provide an apology for this crime
    To bring the perpetrators of this crime and the instigators of the trial and punishment
    To provide compensation amounting to half a million pounds Sterling for the British government
    Egyptian forces to withdraw from Sudan
    That will increase the area of ​​cultivated land in Sudan Moktna



The British aim of this warning remove Egypt from the Sudan to Britain and the unique situation of Sudan and Egypt in the economic competition on the cotton crop and the emergence of England defender look at the interests of Sudan, Egypt.

Saad Zaghloul and agreed on three points and the initial rejection of the fourth. Faqamt English troops evacuated Egyptian army units and the force of the Sudan, providing Saad Zaghloul his resignation.

After the resignation of Saad Zaghloul, King Fuad Pasha commissioned Md. He also headed the ministry to dissolve parliament. But lawmakers gathered outside the parliament and decided to stick to Saad Zaghloul in the prime minister. British Government has sent military vessels off the coast of Alexandria in the threatening demonstration, so decided to Saad Zaghloul abandon the idea of ​​prime minister so as not to expose Egypt to another catastrophe like what happened in 1882.

And, unfortunately, the king resorted to electoral fraud and to prevent cascading delegation's arrival to power, succeeding in many cases, and rarely failed. Pressure as the British High Commissioner in many elections to topple the Muslim Brotherhood candidates in the Department of Ismailia and others.

The second election, 1950

Fair elections, the second came in different circumstances, it was in the interest of Britain to assume the presidency of the delegation of Ministers, he would be able to control the national movement after the deterioration of the popular Farouk.

The Farouk was the view that the political game are calculated after a low position, and by reducing the attack on the delegation and show flexibility in entering the delegation of the Ministry of nationalism. And at the same time that the opinion of the delegation in his interest to Almlaana with Farouk access to the ministry.

And of the fruits of this convergence to enter the delegation of the Ministry of Hussein's secret, which lasted until the national elections were held in January 3, 1950 m and won by an overwhelming majority of the delegation, and so the copper to form the government delegation to the fourth and last of Mustafa copper.

Mustafa El-Nahhas Pasha

But many historians have thought that this ministry was disappointing significantly and carries adjustments suspicious between the government Wafd and the King, and Egypt was exposed to difficult economic conditions, contributed to by the king and the government together, brought them together deals at the expense of the Egyptians, and that was listening to collapse and move the people against the whole system.

And despite that the Ministry of copper have shown great cooperation with the King in the conduct of his interests, but the King's just that not them and wanted to get rid of them and loaded the brunt of worsening economic conditions.

And the Ministry of copper for improved approaches the dismissal to the editorship of a political game to save its popularity, so she canceled the Treaty of 1936, and was in that on the evening of October 8, 1951 AD. And the government took this step at the time in order to prevent the king from the dismissal, because dismissal at that time would make it look like a martyr to the Egyptian national.

But the people were boiling like a volcano and just waiting the opportunity of the revolution, so she demonstrations on 26 and December 27, 1951 in Cairo and Alexandria and the provincial capitals, and described the demonstrations Magdy Rady, and students were the main component therein, and chanting slogans against Britain and the King and Hafez Afifi, who was appointed by Farouk Chairman of the Board on 24 December and was known for his tendency of the English.

And the volcano erupted in January 26, 1952 what is known by fire in Cairo and it marked the demise of the whole system and a new system.

Magdy Rady demonstrations demanding withdrawal of the 1951



Third election, 1976

In the era of Gamal Abdel Nasser entered the parliamentary life latency period long did not go out except when he re-Sadat multi-party system and the elections in 1976 and is a fair election the third, which came with figures of opposition to the policy of Sadat and particularly the Camp David, and ended up solving the Board in 1979 and the establishment of elections, with another in which fraud on a large scale to come to House of Representatives agreed to a peace agreement with Israel except for one vote, is the voice of Chancellor Excellent Nassar, a member of the House of Representatives by the Department of Badari Assiut, a circle only Government has not succeeded in forging their voices.



It appears clear from the history of the three elections that the establishment of free and fair elections once does not indicate the existence of a democratic foundation for the rule of the people and the devolution of power, and that people must remain conscious and can not remain silent in front of any setback for the integrity of the Fund to be establishing this rule are to prevent a coup from the executive branch represented in the President or the government.